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Cardiology
Acute coronary syndrome (heart attack, STEMI/NSTEMI)
Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) comprises the acute, potentially life-threatening manifestations of coronary artery disease: ST-elevation myocardial …
CardiologyAcute pericarditis
Acute pericarditis is rapidly developing inflammation of the pericardial sac, frequently with a pericardial effusion. If the inflammation extends to …
CardiologyAortic regurgitation
Aortic regurgitation (AR), also called aortic insufficiency, is incomplete closure of the aortic valve with diastolic backflow of blood from the …
CardiologyAortic valve stenosis
Aortic stenosis (AS) is narrowing or restricted opening of the aortic valve that obstructs blood flow from the left ventricle into the aorta during …
CardiologyArrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC)
Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC), formerly arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD), is a genetic heart disease that …
CardiologyArterial hypertension (high blood pressure)
Arterial hypertension is a persistent elevation of arterial blood pressure. According to the German National Care Guideline (NVL, based on ESC/ESH …
CardiologyAtrial fibrillation
Atrial fibrillation is a rapid, irregularly irregular atrial rhythm. The atria no longer contract in an organized way; the AV node is bombarded with …
CardiologyAtrial flutter
Atrial flutter is a rapid, regular atrial rhythm caused by an atrial macroreentrant circuit; the atria depolarize at 250–350/min (typically about 300/min).
CardiologyAtrial septal defect and patent foramen ovale
An atrial septal defect (ASD) is an opening in the interatrial septum causing a left-to-right shunt and volume overload of the right atrium and right …
CardiologyAtrioventricular block
Atrioventricular (AV) block is a partial or complete interruption of impulse conduction from the atria to the ventricles. The block may be located in …
CardiologyAV nodal re-entrant tachycardia (AVNRT)
AV nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is a paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia in which the reentrant circuit lies within the AV node and its …
CardiologyBrugada syndrome
Brugada syndrome is an inherited channelopathy with characteristic ECG changes in the right precordial leads (prominent J wave, coved ST elevation …
CardiologyBundle branch block (left and right)
A bundle branch block is a partial or complete interruption of conduction in a bundle branch, a fascicular block (hemiblock) a corresponding …
CardiologyCardiac amyloidosis
In amyloidosis, misfolded, normally soluble proteins are deposited in tissue as insoluble fibrils (about 10 nm in diameter, beta-pleated sheet …
CardiologyCardiogenic shock
Shock is a state of organ hypoperfusion with inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues and resulting cellular damage. Cardiogenic shock is a relative or …
CardiologyChronic coronary syndrome (stable coronary artery disease)
Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the manifestation of atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries. Chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) refers to its stable …
CardiologyConstrictive pericarditis
Constrictive pericarditis is marked inflammatory, fibrotic thickening and stiffening of the pericardium, often with calcium deposits; the visceral …
CardiologyDilated cardiomyopathy
Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a primary myocardial disorder with dilatation and systolic dysfunction of the left or both ventricles that is not …
CardiologyDressler syndrome (post-myocardial infarction syndrome)
Dressler syndrome (post-myocardial infarction syndrome) is a delayed, autoimmune-mediated inflammation of the pericardium and pleura after a …
CardiologyHeart failure
Heart failure is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot supply the tissues with adequate blood flow, or can do so only at elevated filling …
CardiologyHypercholesterolemia and familial hypercholesterolemia
Hypercholesterolemia is a form of dyslipidemia with raised plasma cholesterol, particularly LDL cholesterol, that contributes to the development of …
CardiologyHypertensive emergency and hypertensive crisis
A hypertensive emergency is severe hypertension (according to the German NVL Hypertension above 180 mmHg systolic or above 110 mmHg diastolic, …
CardiologyHypertrophic cardiomyopathy
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a mostly genetic myocardial disorder with left ventricular hypertrophy. In adults a maximal diastolic wall …
CardiologyInfective endocarditis
Infective endocarditis (IE) is an infection of the endocardium, usually of the heart valves. The starting point is generally a sterile …
CardiologyLong QT syndrome and torsades de pointes
The long QT syndromes (LQTS) result from congenital or acquired disorders of cardiac ion channels that prolong the ventricular myocyte action …
CardiologyMechanical complications of myocardial infarction
Mechanical complications of myocardial infarction are structural defects of the heart resulting from myocardial necrosis. The classic forms are …
CardiologyMitral regurgitation
Mitral regurgitation (MR) is incomplete closure of the mitral valve with systolic backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium. In …
CardiologyMitral stenosis
In mitral stenosis (MS) the mitral leaflets are thickened and immobile, and the orifice is narrowed by fusion of the commissures and by shortened, …
CardiologyMyocarditis
Myocarditis is inflammation of the heart muscle. It belongs to the spectrum of inflammatory myopericardial syndromes, which are distinguished by the …
CardiologyPericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade
A pericardial effusion is an accumulation of fluid in the pericardial sac. Cardiac tamponade is present when a moderate or large effusion impairs …
CardiologyPulmonary hypertension
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is increased pressure in the pulmonary circulation. The pulmonary vessels may be constricted, pruned, lost or obstructed; …
CardiologyRheumatic fever
Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is a non-suppurative, acute inflammatory complication of pharyngeal infection with group A streptococci (Streptococcus …
CardiologySecondary hypertension
In secondary hypertension, elevated blood pressure results from an identifiable underlying disease or external cause. It accounts for only a small …
CardiologySick sinus syndrome
Sick sinus syndrome (sinus node dysfunction) refers to a dysfunction of the sinus node causing slow, physiologically inappropriate heart rates. It …
CardiologySyncope
Syncope: transient loss of consciousness from cerebral hypoperfusion with rapid onset, short duration, and spontaneous full recovery.
CardiologyTakotsubo cardiomyopathy
Takotsubo syndrome (takotsubo cardiomyopathy, stress cardiomyopathy, "broken heart syndrome", apical ballooning syndrome) is a transient dysfunction …
CardiologyVentricular fibrillation and sudden cardiac death
Young athletes (35 years or younger): The most common finding is sudden death with a structurally normal heart at autopsy, often due to an inherited …
CardiologyVentricular tachycardia
Ventricular tachycardia (VT) consists of at least three consecutive ventricular beats at a rate of at least 120/min; some experts use a cut-off of …
CardiologyWolff-Parkinson-White syndrome
In Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, an accessory pathway connects atrium and ventricle, circumventing the AV node. When the pathway conducts …
Angiology
Abdominal aortic aneurysm
An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is defined as an abdominal aortic diameter of 3 cm or more. Abdominal aortic aneurysms account for about three …
AngiologyAcute limb ischemia
Acute limb ischemia is a sudden occlusion of a limb artery with acute hypoperfusion of the dependent tissues. It is a vascular emergency, because …
AngiologyAcute mesenteric ischemia
Acute mesenteric ischemia is a sudden interruption of intestinal blood flow due to embolism, thrombosis or a low-flow state. It leads to mediator …
AngiologyAortic dissection
In aortic dissection, blood flows through a tear in the intima into the aortic wall, separates the intima from the media and creates a false lumen. …
AngiologyCarotid artery stenosis
Carotid stenosis is a narrowing of the carotid artery supplying the brain, usually the internal carotid artery at the carotid bifurcation, mainly due …
AngiologyChronic venous insufficiency
Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) is impaired venous return from the legs with persistent venous hypertension, which can cause symptoms, edema and …
AngiologyDeep vein thrombosis
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) of the leg and pelvis is a partial or complete occlusion of the deep conducting and/or muscle veins by blood clots …
AngiologyInherited thrombophilia (factor V Leiden)
Inherited thrombophilia is a congenital tendency to venous thrombosis due to genetic changes in proteins that promote or limit coagulation. The …
AngiologyLipedema
Lipedema is a painful, disproportionate, symmetrical disorder of fat distribution in the limbs that occurs almost exclusively in women. It is always …
AngiologyLymphedema
Lymphedema is swelling of a limb (less often of other body regions) due to impaired lymphatic drainage. Primary lymphedema results from …
AngiologyPeripheral artery disease (PAD)
Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is impaired blood flow in the arteries supplying the limbs – either gradual, due to a stenosis, or complete, due to …
AngiologyPulmonary embolism
Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a partial or complete occlusion of the pulmonary arteries, usually by thrombi carried from the deep veins of the legs or …
AngiologyRaynaud's phenomenon
Raynaud's phenomenon is an episodic, reversible spasm of blood vessels (vasospasm) in the fingers, less often in the toes or other acral parts (e.g. …
AngiologyThromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger's disease)
Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger's disease) is an inflammatory thrombosis of small and medium-sized arteries and some superficial veins. It causes …
AngiologyVaricose veins
Primary varicose veins are a degenerative disease of the vein wall in the superficial venous system of the legs, in which dilated, tortuous veins …
Pulmonology
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a diffuse inflammatory lung injury and a cause of acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Increased …
PulmonologyAlpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency
Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a hereditary deficiency of alpha-1 antitrypsin, the main antiprotease of the lung against neutrophil elastase. It …
PulmonologyAsbestosis and pleural mesothelioma
Asbestos is a group of naturally occurring silicate fibers. Asbestosis is an interstitial pulmonary fibrosis caused by asbestos. Malignant pleural …
PulmonologyAsthma
Asthma is a heterogeneous, chronic inflammatory disease of the airways with bronchial hyperresponsiveness. It is characterized by wheeze, …
PulmonologyBronchiectasis
Bronchiectasis is irreversible dilation and damage of the bronchi. It is regarded as the common end point of various diseases that cause chronic …
PulmonologyCommunity-acquired pneumonia
Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is an acute infection of the lung parenchyma acquired outside hospital. It is distinguished from hospital-acquired …
PulmonologyCOPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic, usually progressive disease of the airways and lungs. It is characterized by airflow …
PulmonologyCystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive multisystem disease caused by pathogenic variants in the CFTR gene. It leads to chronic lung disease, …
PulmonologyHospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP/VAP)
Hospital-acquired (nosocomial) pneumonia (HAP) develops at least 48 hours after being admitted to hospital and was not incubating at the time of …
PulmonologyHypersensitivity pneumonitis
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP, extrinsic allergic alveolitis) is an immunologically mediated interstitial lung disease caused by repeated …
PulmonologyIdiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and interstitial lung disease
Interstitial lung diseases (ILD, diffuse parenchymal lung diseases) are a heterogeneous group of disorders whose pathological processes primarily …
PulmonologyLegionnaires' disease
Legionellosis is an infection caused by bacteria of the genus Legionella. It occurs as Legionnaires' disease, a severe pneumonia, and as Pontiac …
PulmonologyLung abscess
A lung abscess is a necrotizing lung infection with a circumscribed, pus-filled cavity. It usually develops after aspiration of oral secretions in …
PulmonologyLung cancer (bronchial carcinoma)
Lung cancer (bronchial carcinoma) is a malignant epithelial tumor arising from the airways or the lung parenchyma. Histologically, two main groups …
PulmonologyObstructive sleep apnea
Obstructive sleep apnea consists of repeated episodes of partial or complete closure of the upper airway during sleep. They cause apneas or …
PulmonologyPleural effusion
A pleural effusion is an increased accumulation of fluid in the pleural space. Physiologically, the pleural space contains only 10–20 mL of fluid, …
PulmonologyPleural empyema
Pleural empyema is a collection of pus in the pleural space. It is the severe end of the spectrum of pleural infection, which is defined as bacterial …
PulmonologyPneumothorax
A pneumothorax is an accumulation of air in the pleural space that causes partial or complete collapse of the lung. It can occur spontaneously or …
PulmonologySarcoidosis
Sarcoidosis is a granulomatous multisystem disease of unknown cause. Its pathological hallmark is non-caseating epithelioid granulomas, which most …
PulmonologySilicosis
Silicosis is a pneumoconiosis caused by inhaling respirable crystalline silicon dioxide (mostly quartz). It is characterized by nodular pulmonary …
PulmonologyTuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. In about 70 % of cases it manifests as …
Gastroenterology
Achalasia
Achalasia is a neurogenic esophageal motility disorder with impaired peristalsis and absent relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter on …
GastroenterologyAcute pancreatitis
Acute pancreatitis is acute inflammation of the pancreas and sometimes of the adjacent tissues. It is caused by inappropriate release of pancreatic …
GastroenterologyAutoimmune pancreatitis
Autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP) is a rare, specific form of chronic benign pancreatic disease. Typical features are obstructive jaundice with or …
GastroenterologyBarrett's esophagus
Barrett's esophagus is the replacement of the normal squamous epithelium of the distal esophagus by metaplastic columnar epithelium. The new mucosa …
GastroenterologyBoerhaave and Mallory-Weiss syndrome
Both conditions are linked to a sudden rise in pressure in the esophagus (barotrauma), but they differ in the depth of the injury:
GastroenterologyBowel obstruction (ileus)
Mechanical bowel obstruction is a significant impairment or complete arrest of the passage of intestinal contents due to a blockage. It is …
GastroenterologyCeliac disease
Celiac disease is an immunologically mediated disease in genetically susceptible people, caused by intolerance to gluten. It results in inflammation …
GastroenterologyCholangiocarcinoma (bile duct cancer)
Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA, bile duct cancer) comprises a heterogeneous group of malignancies arising in the biliary tree. Histologically, they are …
GastroenterologyCholedocholithiasis and acute cholangitis
Choledocholithiasis is the presence of stones in the bile ducts; they can form in the gallbladder or in the ducts themselves. Duct stones cause …
GastroenterologyChronic pancreatitis
Chronic pancreatitis is persistent inflammation of the pancreas with permanent structural damage: fibrosis and ductal strictures, followed by a …
GastroenterologyClostridioides difficile infection
Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is a toxin-mediated intestinal infection. Toxins of C. difficile cause pseudomembranous colitis, typically …
GastroenterologyColorectal adenomas (polyps)
An intestinal polyp is any mass of tissue arising from the bowel wall and protruding into the lumen. Polyps may be sessile or pedunculated and vary …
GastroenterologyColorectal cancer
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a malignant tumor of the large bowel (colon) or rectum. 95% are adenocarcinomas, which usually arise within adenomatous …
GastroenterologyCrohn's disease
Crohn's disease is a chronic transmural inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that usually affects the distal ileum and colon but may occur in any part of …
GastroenterologyDiverticular disease and diverticulitis
Diverticula are saclike mucosal pouches protruding from a hollow organ. True diverticula contain all layers of the wall. Colonic diverticula, by …
GastroenterologyEosinophilic esophagitis
Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic immune-mediated disease of the esophagus with eosinophil-predominant inflammation. It can cause …
GastroenterologyEsophageal cancer
Esophageal cancer is a malignant tumor of the esophagus. In the proximal two thirds, squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type, in the distal …
GastroenterologyFamilial adenomatous polyposis (FAP)
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is an autosomal dominant disease in which 100 or more adenomatous polyps carpet the colon and rectum. In the …
GastroenterologyGallstones and acute cholecystitis
Cholecystolithiasis (cholelithiasis in the narrower sense) is the presence of one or more gallstones in the gallbladder. Most disorders of the …
GastroenterologyGastric cancer
Gastric cancer is a malignant tumor of the stomach. Adenocarcinoma accounts for about 95 % of malignant gastric tumors; less common are localised …
GastroenterologyGastritis (type A, B and C)
Gastritis is inflammation of the gastric mucosa. Causes include Helicobacter pylori infection, drugs such as NSAIDs, alcohol, stress and autoimmune …
GastroenterologyGastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD)
In gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), an incompetent lower esophageal sphincter allows gastric contents to flow back into the esophagus, …
GastroenterologyHelicobacter pylori infection
Helicobacter pylori is a spiral-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium adapted to the acidic environment of the stomach. Infection causes gastritis, peptic …
GastroenterologyHiatus hernia
A hiatus hernia is a protrusion of the stomach through the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm into the chest. Most hiatus hernias cause no symptoms; …
GastroenterologyInfectious gastroenteritis and travelers' diarrhea
Gastroenteritis is inflammation of the lining of the stomach and small and large intestines. Most cases are infectious, caused by viruses, bacteria …
GastroenterologyIrritable bowel syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is characterized by recurrent abdominal pain associated with at least two of the following features: relation to …
GastroenterologyIschemic colitis
Ischemic colitis comprises conditions with insufficient blood supply to the colon due to occlusive or non-occlusive vascular disease. It is usually a …
GastroenterologyLactose intolerance
Lactose intolerance is the most common form of carbohydrate intolerance, a malabsorption syndrome: because of a deficiency of the intestinal enzyme …
GastroenterologyLower gastrointestinal bleeding
Lower gastrointestinal bleeding was traditionally defined as bleeding from a source distal to the ligament of Treitz, including the small and large …
GastroenterologyLynch syndrome (HNPCC)
Lynch syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder in which one of several known genetic mutations impairs DNA mismatch repair. Besides familial …
GastroenterologyMicroscopic colitis
Microscopic colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease, probably caused by a chronic immune-mediated process, and a common cause of chronic watery …
GastroenterologyNeuroendocrine tumors and carcinoid syndrome
Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) arise from neural crest cells in the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, bronchi and rarely the genitourinary tract. …
GastroenterologyPancreatic cancer
Pancreatic cancer is a malignant tumor of the pancreas, most commonly a ductal adenocarcinoma. Most pancreatic cancers are exocrine tumors arising …
GastroenterologyPeptic ulcer disease
A peptic ulcer is a mucosal defect of the gastrointestinal tract, typically in the stomach (gastric ulcer) or the first few centimetres of the …
GastroenterologyUlcerative colitis
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory and ulcerative disease arising in the colonic mucosa, most often characterized by bloody diarrhea. …
GastroenterologyUpper gastrointestinal bleeding
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is bleeding above the ligament of Treitz, i.e. from the esophagus, stomach or duodenum. Gastrointestinal bleeding can …
Liver & biliary tract
Acute liver failure
Acute liver failure (ALF) is a sudden, severe loss of liver function in patients without pre-existing liver disease or cirrhosis. It is defined by …
Liver & biliary tractAlcoholic hepatitis
Alcoholic hepatitis (alcoholic steatohepatitis) is inflammatory liver injury due to long-standing excessive alcohol consumption. It combines fatty …
Liver & biliary tractAscites
Ascites is a pathological accumulation of free fluid in the peritoneal cavity. The most common cause is portal hypertension in liver cirrhosis, but …
Liver & biliary tractAutoimmune hepatitis
Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic, immune-mediated inflammation of the liver parenchyma. It is characterised by raised aminotransferases, …
Liver & biliary tractBenign liver tumors (hemangioma, FNH, adenoma)
Benign liver tumors are non-malignant liver masses. They are relatively common, usually cause no symptoms and are mostly discovered incidentally on …
Liver & biliary tractBudd-Chiari syndrome
Budd-Chiari syndrome is an obstruction of hepatic venous outflow. The obstruction can be located anywhere between the small hepatic veins within the …
Liver & biliary tractDrug-induced liver injury (DILI)
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is liver damage caused by medicines, herbal products or nutritional products. The spectrum ranges from asymptomatic …
Liver & biliary tractEsophageal varices and portal hypertension
Portal hypertension is raised pressure in the portal venous system. Normal portal pressure is 5–10 mmHg, and the gradient to the inferior vena cava …
Liver & biliary tractGilbert's syndrome
Gilbert's syndrome (Meulengracht's disease) is a harmless, presumably lifelong metabolic variant in which the only significant abnormality is a mild, …
Liver & biliary tractHemochromatosis
Hereditary hemochromatosis is an inherited disorder of iron metabolism with excessive intestinal iron absorption. Iron is deposited in the liver, …
Liver & biliary tractHepatic encephalopathy
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) comprises all disorders of central nervous system function that occur as a consequence of acute or chronic liver disease …
Liver & biliary tractHepatitis A
Hepatitis A is an acute inflammation of the liver caused by hepatitis A virus (HAV), a single-stranded RNA virus of the family Picornaviridae (genus …
Liver & biliary tractHepatitis B
Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver with hepatitis B virus (HBV), a small, enveloped DNA virus of the family Hepadnaviridae. The envelope …
Liver & biliary tractHepatitis C
Hepatitis C is an infection of the liver with hepatitis C virus (HCV), an enveloped, single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus of the family …
Liver & biliary tractHepatitis D and hepatitis E
Hepatitis D is caused by hepatitis D virus (HDV, delta virus), a defective RNA virus. It can form infectious particles only by using the …
Liver & biliary tractHepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a malignant tumor arising from liver cells. It is the most common primary liver cancer and develops predominantly …
Liver & biliary tractHepatorenal syndrome
Hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) is a functional, potentially reversible renal dysfunction in advanced liver cirrhosis with ascites or in alcoholic …
Liver & biliary tractLiver cirrhosis
Liver cirrhosis is the common end stage of many chronic liver diseases. Regenerative nodules are surrounded by fibrous septa, and the lobular …
Liver & biliary tractPrimary biliary cholangitis (PBC)
Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is a chronic, non-suppurative, granulomatous and destructive inflammation of the small intrahepatic bile ducts, …
Liver & biliary tractPrimary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC)
PSC is a chronic, progressive cholestatic liver disease. Inflammation and fibrosis lead to strictures and dilatations of the intrahepatic and/or …
Liver & biliary tractSpontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP)
Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is a bacterial infection of pre-existing ascites without an identifiable intra-abdominal source of infection …
Liver & biliary tractSteatotic liver disease (fatty liver, MASLD)
Steatotic liver disease (SLD) is the umbrella term for excessive fat accumulation in liver cells. One of its most common forms is MASLD (metabolic …
Liver & biliary tractWilson's disease
Wilson's disease (hepatolenticular degeneration) is an inherited disorder of copper metabolism. Because of reduced biliary excretion of copper, …
Nephrology
Acute interstitial nephritis
Acute interstitial nephritis (acute tubulointerstitial nephritis) is inflammation of the renal interstitium with an inflammatory infiltrate and edema …
NephrologyAcute kidney injury
Acute kidney injury (AKI; formerly acute renal failure) is a rapid decline in kidney function over days to weeks with a rise in blood creatinine and …
NephrologyAcute pyelonephritis
Acute pyelonephritis is a bacterial infection of the renal pelvis and renal parenchyma. In international classifications (e.g. of the Infectious …
NephrologyAutosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD)
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is a hereditary disease in which cysts progressively form in both kidneys. The kidneys enlarge, …
NephrologyBartter and Gitelman syndromes
Bartter syndrome and Gitelman syndrome are rare, mostly autosomal recessive salt-wasting tubulopathies. Both share renal loss of sodium, chloride, …
NephrologyChronic kidney disease
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a disorder of kidney structure or function present for at least 3 months. The most reliable evidence is an eGFR < 60 …
NephrologyDiabetic kidney disease
Diabetic nephropathy (diabetic kidney disease) is glomerular sclerosis and fibrosis caused by the metabolic and hemodynamic changes of diabetes …
NephrologyFocal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)
Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) is a histologic pattern of injury: only some glomeruli are affected (focal), and within them only part of …
NephrologyGoodpasture syndrome (anti-GBM disease)
Anti-GBM disease (Goodpasture disease) is an autoimmune small-vessel disease in which circulating antibodies are directed against the glomerular and …
NephrologyHantavirus infection (nephropathia epidemica)
Hantavirus diseases are zoonoses caused by viruses of the genus Orthohantavirus, transmitted from rodents to humans. European and Asian virus types …
NephrologyIgA nephropathy
IgA nephropathy (Berger disease) is a chronic glomerulonephritis with deposition of IgA-containing immune complexes in the glomerular mesangium. It …
NephrologyKidney stones (nephrolithiasis)
Nephrolithiasis (urolithiasis) is the formation of solid concretions (urinary calculi) in the renal collecting system or urinary tract. They range …
NephrologyLupus nephritis
Lupus nephritis is glomerulonephritis caused by systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). It results from deposition of immune complexes composed of …
NephrologyMembranous nephropathy
Membranous nephropathy (membranous glomerulonephritis) is characterized by deposition of immune complexes on the outer side of the glomerular …
NephrologyMinimal change disease
Minimal change disease (lipoid nephrosis) is a glomerulopathy with abrupt-onset nephrotic syndrome in which the glomeruli appear normal on light …
NephrologyNephritic syndrome and glomerulonephritis
Nephritic syndrome is the clinical expression of glomerular inflammation (glomerulonephritis). Its hallmarks are hematuria with usually dysmorphic …
NephrologyNephrotic syndrome
Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by heavy glomerular proteinuria in the nephrotic range (> 3.5 g/day; some definitions use ≥ 3 g/day), …
NephrologyRapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN)
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) is an acute nephritic syndrome that progresses to kidney failure within weeks to months. Histologically …
NephrologyRenal artery stenosis
Renal artery stenosis is a narrowing of one or both renal arteries or their branches with reduced blood flow; complete blockage is called renal …
NephrologyRenal tubular acidosis
Renal tubular acidosis (RTA) comprises disorders in which the kidney excretes hydrogen ions inadequately or reabsorbs filtered bicarbonate …
NephrologyUrinary tract infection and cystitis
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is a mostly bacterial infection of the urinary tract. Cystitis is infection of the bladder (lower urinary tract), …
Electrolytes & acid–base
Dehydration
Dehydration refers to a deficit of body water. Clinically, two components are distinguished that often occur together: volume depletion (loss of …
Electrolytes & acid–baseHypercalcemia
Hypercalcemia is defined as a total serum calcium above 2.60 mmol/L or an ionised calcium above 1.30 mmol/L. It results mainly from increased bone …
Electrolytes & acid–baseHyperkalemia
Hyperkalemia is defined as a serum potassium concentration above 5.5 mmol/L. It usually results from reduced renal potassium excretion or a shift of …
Electrolytes & acid–baseHypernatremia
Hypernatremia is defined as a serum sodium concentration above 145 mmol/L. It indicates a deficit of total body water relative to body sodium: water …
Electrolytes & acid–baseHypocalcemia
Hypocalcemia is defined as a total serum calcium below 2.20 mmol/L with normal plasma proteins or an ionised calcium below 1.17 mmol/L. Because low …
Electrolytes & acid–baseHypokalemia
Hypokalemia is defined as a serum potassium concentration below 3.5 mmol/L. It results either from a deficit of total body potassium or from a shift …
Electrolytes & acid–baseHypomagnesemia
Hypomagnesemia is defined as a serum magnesium concentration below 0.70 mmol/L; severe hypomagnesemia is usually associated with values below 0.50 …
Electrolytes & acid–baseHyponatremia
Hyponatremia is defined as a serum sodium concentration below 136 mmol/L. It reflects a relative excess of body water compared with total body sodium …
Electrolytes & acid–baseMetabolic acidosis
Metabolic acidosis is a primary decrease in blood bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), usually with a compensatory fall in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide …
Electrolytes & acid–baseMetabolic alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis is a primary increase in blood bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), with or without a compensatory rise in Pco₂. The pH may be raised or nearly …
Electrolytes & acid–baseRefeeding syndrome
Refeeding syndrome refers to the metabolic and clinical disturbances that can occur in undernourished or starved people when nutrition is restarted – …
Electrolytes & acid–baseRhabdomyolysis
Rhabdomyolysis is a clinical syndrome involving breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue and release of myoglobin, creatine kinase (CK) and intracellular …
Electrolytes & acid–baseSIADH (syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion)
The syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH), also called Schwartz-Bartter syndrome, is defined as less than maximally dilute urine in the …
Endocrinology & diabetes
Acromegaly
Acromegaly results from excessive secretion of growth hormone (GH, somatotropin) after closure of the epiphyses; the cause is almost always a …
Endocrinology & diabetesAdrenal incidentaloma
An adrenal incidentaloma is an adrenal mass discovered incidentally on imaging performed for another reason, such as abdominal CT or MRI. Every …
Endocrinology & diabetesAdrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease)
In adrenal insufficiency the adrenal cortex produces too little hormone.
Endocrinology & diabetesCushing's syndrome
Cushing's syndrome is the clinical picture of chronic glucocorticoid excess (cortisol or related substances), regardless of cause. Cushing's disease …
Endocrinology & diabetesDiabetes insipidus (arginine vasopressin deficiency)
In arginine vasopressin deficiency (AVP-D), formerly central diabetes insipidus, the hormone vasopressin (ADH) is completely or partially lacking. …
Endocrinology & diabetesDiabetic foot syndrome
Diabetic foot syndrome (DFS) comprises skin changes, ulceration, infection and gangrene of the foot in people with diabetes. It is based on …
Endocrinology & diabetesDiabetic ketoacidosis
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is an acute, life-threatening metabolic decompensation caused by insulin deficiency. It is characterized by the triad of …
Endocrinology & diabetesDiabetic polyneuropathy
Diabetic polyneuropathy comprises nerve damage caused by diabetes mellitus. The most common form is distal symmetric sensorimotor polyneuropathy …
Endocrinology & diabetesDiabetic retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy is a microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus affecting the retina. It presents with microaneurysms, intraretinal …
Endocrinology & diabetesGoiter and thyroid nodules
A goiter is any enlargement of the thyroid gland. It may be uniform (diffuse goiter) or nodular (nodular goiter). Simple (euthyroid) goiter is a …
Endocrinology & diabetesGraves' disease
Graves' disease is an autoimmune thyroid disease in which stimulating autoantibodies against the TSH receptor (TRAb, also TSI) cause hyperthyroidism …
Endocrinology & diabetesHashimoto's thyroiditis
Hashimoto's thyroiditis (chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, autoimmune thyroiditis) is a chronic autoimmune inflammation of the thyroid gland with …
Endocrinology & diabetesHyperosmolar hyperglycemic state
Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) is an acute metabolic decompensation with marked hyperglycemia, extreme dehydration, plasma hyperosmolality …
Endocrinology & diabetesHyperprolactinemia and prolactinoma
Hyperprolactinaemia is a raised blood prolactin level. Its most common pathological cause is a prolactinoma, a benign adenoma of the …
Endocrinology & diabetesHyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is overactivity of the thyroid gland with elevated levels of free thyroid hormones (fT4, fT3) and an increased metabolic rate. In the …
Endocrinology & diabetesHypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia is a low plasma glucose level that can trigger activation of the sympathetic nervous system and dysfunction of the central nervous …
Endocrinology & diabetesHypoparathyroidism
Hypoparathyroidism is a deficiency of parathyroid hormone (PTH). It causes hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia and often leads to chronic tetany.
Endocrinology & diabetesHypopituitarism
Hypopituitarism is partial or complete loss of hormone production by the anterior pituitary. When all anterior pituitary hormones are lost, the …
Endocrinology & diabetesHypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism is a deficiency of thyroid hormones. In the primary form the cause lies in the thyroid itself (TSH raised, fT4 low); in the secondary …
Endocrinology & diabetesInsulinoma
Insulinoma is a rare neuroendocrine tumor of the pancreatic beta cells with autonomous, non-suppressible insulin secretion. The hallmark is fasting …
Endocrinology & diabetesMetabolic syndrome
Metabolic syndrome refers to the combined occurrence of abdominal (visceral) obesity, arterial hypertension, impaired glucose metabolism or insulin …
Endocrinology & diabetesMultiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN 1 and MEN 2)
Multiple endocrine neoplasias (MEN) are autosomal dominant inherited syndromes in which hyperplasia or tumors develop in several endocrine glands, …
Endocrinology & diabetesMyxedema coma
Myxedema coma is the life-threatening decompensation of severe, usually long-standing hypothyroidism. It is characterized by impaired consciousness …
Endocrinology & diabetesObesity
Obesity is a chronic, multifactorial, relapsing disease with excessive accumulation of body fat. It is usually defined by a body mass index (BMI, …
Endocrinology & diabetesOsteomalacia and vitamin D deficiency
Osteomalacia is a disorder of mineralisation of the bone matrix in adults: the ratio of bone mineral to bone matrix is reduced. In osteoporosis, by …
Endocrinology & diabetesOsteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a progressive metabolic bone disease with reduced bone mineral density and deterioration of bone microarchitecture. The increased …
Endocrinology & diabetesPheochromocytoma
A phaeochromocytoma is a catecholamine-secreting tumor of chromaffin cells, usually in the adrenal medulla. It causes persistent or paroxysmal …
Endocrinology & diabetesPrimary aldosteronism (Conn's syndrome)
Primary aldosteronism (PA) is autonomous overproduction of aldosterone by the adrenal cortex that is largely independent of renin and volume status. …
Endocrinology & diabetesPrimary hyperparathyroidism
Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) by one or more parathyroid glands, largely independent of the …
Endocrinology & diabetesSecondary hyperparathyroidism
In secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) the parathyroid glands increase PTH secretion in response to disorders outside the parathyroids, above all …
Endocrinology & diabetesSubacute thyroiditis (de Quervain)
Subacute thyroiditis (de Quervain thyroiditis), also called subacute granulomatous or giant cell thyroiditis, is an acute, painful inflammation of …
Endocrinology & diabetesThyroid cancer
Thyroid cancers are malignant tumors of the thyroid gland. They arise either from the follicular epithelium (papillary, follicular, oncocytic, poorly …
Endocrinology & diabetesThyroid storm
Thyroid storm is a rare, life-threatening exacerbation of thyrotoxicosis with hypermetabolism and dysfunction of multiple organ systems. It is a …
Endocrinology & diabetesType 1 diabetes mellitus
Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a chronic autoimmune disease in which the beta cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans are destroyed. The result is …
Endocrinology & diabetesType 2 diabetes mellitus
Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by insulin resistance and insulin secretion that is inadequate relative to …
Haematology & oncology
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a malignant disease of lymphoid precursor cells. Uncontrollably proliferating lymphoblasts displace normal …
Haematology & oncologyAcute myeloid leukemia (AML)
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a malignant disease of myeloid progenitor cells. An acquired series of genetic aberrations, usually at the level of …
Haematology & oncologyAnemia (classification and work-up)
Anemia is a reduction in red blood cells, measured as hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit or red cell count. According to the WHO it is present in adults …
Haematology & oncologyAnemia of chronic disease (anemia of inflammation)
Anemia of chronic disease (ACD), now increasingly called anemia of inflammation, is a multifactorial, usually mild to moderate anemia occurring in …
Haematology & oncologyAntiphospholipid syndrome
Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is an acquired autoimmune disorder with venous, arterial or microvascular thrombosis and/or pregnancy complications …
Haematology & oncologyAplastic anemia
Aplastic anemia (panmyelopathy) is a disorder of the hematopoietic stem cell with hypoplasia or aplasia of the bone marrow and a reduction of at …
Haematology & oncologyAutoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA)
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is an acquired hemolysis caused by autoantibodies against the body's own red cells. According to the temperature …
Haematology & oncologyChronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a neoplasm of mature-appearing, monoclonal B lymphocytes that accumulate in the blood, bone marrow, lymph …
Haematology & oncologyChronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative neoplasm of the pluripotent stem cell with marked overproduction of mature and immature …
Haematology & oncologyDisseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC, consumptive coagulopathy) is an acquired, systemic activation of coagulation with excessive generation …
Haematology & oncologyEssential thrombocythemia
Essential thrombocythemia (ET) is a myeloproliferative neoplasm with a persistently increased platelet count, megakaryocytic hyperplasia in the bone …
Haematology & oncologyFebrile neutropenia
Febrile neutropenia is fever with a markedly reduced neutrophil count, usually resulting from myelosuppressive cytotoxic drugs or bone marrow …
Haematology & oncologyFolate deficiency
Folate deficiency causes a megaloblastic, macrocytic anemia that cannot be distinguished from the anemia of vitamin B12 deficiency on the blood …
Haematology & oncologyGlucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (favism)
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is an X-linked enzyme defect of the hexose monophosphate shunt and the most common metabolic …
Haematology & oncologyHemolytic anemias
Hemolysis is the premature destruction of red blood cells, with a lifespan shorter than the normal approximately 120 days. Hemolytic anemia develops …
Haematology & oncologyHemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a thrombotic microangiopathy with kidney failure as the leading feature. It is characterised by the triad of …
Haematology & oncologyHemophilia
Hemophilia is an inherited, X-linked recessive bleeding disorder caused by deficiency of factor VIII (hemophilia A) or factor IX (hemophilia B). Both …
Haematology & oncologyHeparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT)
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an immune-mediated, drug-induced thrombocytopenia that, paradoxically, is associated not with bleeding but …
Haematology & oncologyHereditary spherocytosis
Hereditary spherocytosis is an inherited red cell membrane disorder. Defects of membrane skeleton proteins produce spherical, poorly deformable red …
Haematology & oncologyHodgkin lymphoma
Hodgkin lymphoma (Hodgkin disease, lymphogranulomatosis) is a malignant lymphoma arising from clonally transformed cells of the B-cell lineage. It is …
Haematology & oncologyImmune thrombocytopenia (ITP)
Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP), formerly Werlhof disease or idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, is an acquired, non-hereditary autoimmune disorder …
Haematology & oncologyIron deficiency anemia
Iron deficiency is a reduction in total body iron. Iron deficiency anemia is present when hemoglobin falls below the age- and sex-specific normal …
Haematology & oncologyMALT lymphoma
MALT lymphoma (extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue) is an indolent B-cell lymphoma. It arises from memory B cells …
Haematology & oncologyMonoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS)
Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) is an asymptomatic, premalignant clonal plasma cell disorder. An M-protein is detectable in …
Haematology & oncologyMultiple myeloma
Multiple myeloma (synonym: plasmacytoma; in the WHO classification plasma cell myeloma) is a malignant proliferation of antibody-producing plasma …
Haematology & oncologyMyelodysplastic syndromes (MDS)
Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) are clonal disorders of the hematopoietic stem cell with ineffective and dysplastic hematopoiesis. They are …
Haematology & oncologyNon-Hodgkin lymphomas
Non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL) are a heterogeneous group of malignant, monoclonal neoplasms of lymphoid cells. They arise in lymph nodes, bone marrow, …
Haematology & oncologyParaneoplastic syndromes
Paraneoplastic syndromes are manifestations that occur at sites distant from a tumor or its metastases. They do not result from local tumor growth …
Haematology & oncologyParoxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH)
Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is a rare, acquired clonal disorder of hematopoietic stem cells. Its hallmarks are complement-mediated …
Haematology & oncologyPolycythemia vera
Polycythemia vera (PV) is a chronic myeloproliferative neoplasm. Its hallmark is an increase in morphologically normal red blood cells, usually …
Haematology & oncologyPrimary myelofibrosis
Primary myelofibrosis (PMF) is a chronic myeloproliferative neoplasm with bone marrow fibrosis, extramedullary hematopoiesis (mainly in the spleen), …
Haematology & oncologyRenal anemia
Renal anemia is a hypoproliferative, usually normochromic-normocytic anemia in chronic kidney disease. It results mainly from reduced renal …
Haematology & oncologySickle cell disease
Sickle cell disease is an inherited hemoglobinopathy with chronic hemolytic anemia and recurrent vaso-occlusion. It is caused by the abnormal …
Haematology & oncologySuperior vena cava syndrome
Superior vena cava syndrome comprises the symptoms and findings resulting from narrowing or occlusion of the thin-walled superior vena cava. Venous …
Haematology & oncologyThalassemia
Thalassaemias are a group of mostly autosomal recessive, microcytic anemias in which the synthesis of one or more globin chains is reduced or absent. …
Haematology & oncologyThrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP, Moschcowitz syndrome) is an acute, life-threatening thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) caused by severe …
Haematology & oncologyTumor lysis syndrome
Tumor lysis syndrome (TLS) is a metabolic derangement caused by the rapid breakdown of large numbers of tumor cells. The released intracellular …
Haematology & oncologyVitamin B12 deficiency and pernicious anemia
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency causes megaloblastic, macrocytic anemia, damage to the white matter of the spinal cord and brain, and peripheral …
Haematology & oncologyVon Willebrand disease
Von Willebrand disease (VWD) is the most common inherited bleeding disorder. It is caused by a quantitative deficiency or a functional defect of von …
Haematology & oncologyWaldenström macroglobulinemia
Waldenström macroglobulinemia is a lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma with bone marrow infiltration and production of a monoclonal IgM paraprotein. …
Rheumatology & immunology
Adult-onset Still's disease
Adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD) is a rare autoinflammatory disease of unknown cause. It is characterized by the classic triad of arthralgia or …
Rheumatology & immunologyAxial spondyloarthritis (ankylosing spondylitis)
Axial spondyloarthritis is a chronic inflammatory disease mainly of the axial skeleton (sacroiliac joints and spine). Its prototype is ankylosing …
Rheumatology & immunologyBehçet's disease
Behçet disease is a chronic relapsing multisystem vasculitis with mucosal inflammation. Leading features are recurrent oral ulcers, ocular …
Rheumatology & immunologyCPPD disease (pseudogout, chondrocalcinosis)
Calcium pyrophosphate deposition (CPPD) disease involves intra-articular and extra-articular deposition of calcium pyrophosphate crystals. …
Rheumatology & immunologyDermatomyositis and polymyositis
Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies are autoimmune disorders with inflammatory and degenerative changes in the muscles (e.g., polymyositis, …
Rheumatology & immunologyEosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (EGPA)
Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (EGPA, formerly Churg-Strauss syndrome) is a systemic necrotizing vasculitis of small and medium-sized …
Rheumatology & immunologyGiant cell arteritis (temporal arteritis)
Giant cell arteritis (formerly temporal arteritis, Horton disease) is a granulomatous vasculitis of large and medium-sized arteries in older age. It …
Rheumatology & immunologyGout
Gout is caused by precipitation of monosodium urate crystals in and around joints. It usually causes recurrent acute and later also chronic …
Rheumatology & immunologyGranulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA)
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA, formerly Wegener granulomatosis) is an ANCA-associated vasculitis with necrotizing granulomatous inflammation, …
Rheumatology & immunologyIgA vasculitis (Henoch-Schönlein purpura)
IgA vasculitis (formerly Henoch-Schönlein purpura) is a vasculitis affecting primarily small vessels. According to the 2012 Chapel Hill Consensus …
Rheumatology & immunologyMicroscopic polyangiitis
Microscopic polyangiitis (MPA) is a systemic necrotizing vasculitis mainly of small vessels without immunoglobulin deposition (pauci-immune). It may …
Rheumatology & immunologyMixed connective tissue disease (Sharp syndrome)
Mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD, Sharp syndrome) is an uncommon, specifically defined syndrome with overlapping features of systemic lupus …
Rheumatology & immunologyPolyarteritis nodosa
Polyarteritis nodosa (PAN) is a systemic necrotizing vasculitis mainly of medium-sized and occasionally small muscular arteries, resulting in …
Rheumatology & immunologyPolymyalgia rheumatica
Polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) is an inflammatory syndrome of older age with severe pain and stiffness of the proximal muscles (shoulder and hip …
Rheumatology & immunologyPsoriatic arthritis
Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) is a chronic inflammatory, seronegative spondyloarthritis in people with psoriasis of the skin or nails. It affects …
Rheumatology & immunologyReactive arthritis
Reactive arthritis is an acute spondyloarthritis usually triggered by a preceding genitourinary or gastrointestinal infection. It is a postinfectious …
Rheumatology & immunologyRheumatoid arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease that primarily involves the joints. It is characterized by symmetric inflammation …
Rheumatology & immunologySeptic arthritis
Septic (acute infectious) arthritis is a usually bacterial joint infection that evolves over hours or days. The infection resides in the synovium or …
Rheumatology & immunologySjögren's syndrome
Sjögren syndrome is a chronic, systemic, autoimmune inflammatory disorder of unknown cause. Its hallmark is dryness of the mouth, eyes, and other …
Rheumatology & immunologySystemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic inflammatory multisystem disorder of autoimmune etiology that occurs predominantly in young women. …
Rheumatology & immunologySystemic sclerosis (scleroderma)
Systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) is a rare, chronic systemic rheumatic disease of unknown cause. It is characterized by diffuse fibrosis and vascular …
Rheumatology & immunologyTakayasu arteritis
Takayasu arteritis is an inflammatory disease of the aorta, its main branches, and the pulmonary arteries. It is a large-vessel vasculitis and mainly …
Rheumatology & immunologyUveitis in rheumatic diseases
Uveitis is inflammation of the uveal tract, i.e., the iris, ciliary body, and choroid; the retina, anterior chamber, and vitreous are often involved …
Infectious diseases
Bacterial meningitis
Acute bacterial meningitis is a rapidly progressive bacterial infection of the meninges and subarachnoid space. Leading symptoms are headache, fever …
Infectious diseasesCOVID-19
COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) is the disease caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. It is primarily an acute respiratory illness with a spectrum …
Infectious diseasesCytomegalovirus infection (CMV)
Cytomegalovirus infection (CMV infection) is an infection with human herpesvirus 5. Like all herpesviruses, CMV remains latent in the body for life …
Infectious diseasesDengue fever
Dengue fever is a viral infection with dengue virus (flavivirus, four serotypes) transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes. Most infections are …
Infectious diseasesFever of unknown origin
Fever of unknown origin (FUO) is a body temperature of at least 38.3 °C (rectal) that does not result from a transient, self-limited illness, a …
Infectious diseasesHerpes simplex encephalitis
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is an acute, usually necrotizing inflammation of the brain parenchyma caused by herpes simplex viruses, in adults …
Infectious diseasesHerpes zoster (shingles)
Herpes zoster (shingles) is the endogenous reactivation of varicella-zoster virus (VZV, human herpesvirus 3), which persists for life in spinal or …
Infectious diseasesHIV infection and AIDS
HIV infection is a chronic infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1 or HIV-2). The virus destroys CD4-positive T helper cells and …
Infectious diseasesInfectious mononucleosis (glandular fever)
Infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever, "kissing disease") is the symptomatic primary infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV, human herpesvirus …
Infectious diseasesInfluenza (flu)
Influenza ("the flu") is an acute respiratory infection caused by influenza viruses that occurs in annual epidemics. It is characterized by sudden …
Infectious diseasesLyme disease (Lyme borreliosis)
Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis) is a tick-borne bacterial multisystem disease caused by spirochetes of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex. …
Infectious diseasesMalaria
Malaria is a febrile infectious disease caused by single-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium, transmitted by the bite of female Anopheles …
Infectious diseasesPneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)
Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP, also PJP) is a pneumonia caused by the atypical fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly P. carinii). It occurs almost …
Infectious diseasesSepsis and septic shock
Sepsis is defined by the current consensus definition (Sepsis-3, 2016) as life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response …
Infectious diseasesSpondylodiscitis
Spondylodiscitis is an infection of the spine that involves both the vertebral bodies (spondylitis, vertebral osteomyelitis) and the intervertebral …
Infectious diseasesStaphylococcus aureus bacteremia
Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (SAB) refers to the detection of S. aureus in blood culture. It is characterized by a tendency to form metastatic …
Critical care & emergency medicine
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a serious, systemic hypersensitivity reaction that is usually rapid in onset and can compromise breathing and/or circulation in a …
Critical care & emergency medicineDelirium
Delirium is an acute, transient, usually reversible and fluctuating disturbance of attention, cognition and level of consciousness. Synonyms are …
Critical care & emergency medicineShock (types of shock)
Shock is tissue hypoperfusion due to acute circulatory failure with inadequate oxygen delivery and resulting cellular dysfunction and damage. It is …
Critical care & emergency medicineToxidromes (recognizing poisoning)
A toxidrome (toxic syndrome) is a typical combination of symptoms and findings that points to poisoning with a particular class of substances. The …
Allergology
Allergic rhinitis (hay fever)
Allergic rhinitis is an IgE-mediated inflammation of the nasal mucosa following exposure to pollen or other allergens. Cardinal symptoms are itching, …
AllergologyAlpha-gal syndrome
Alpha-gal syndrome is an IgE-mediated allergy to the carbohydrate galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal), which occurs in the meat and products of …
AllergologyAngiedema (bradykinin- and histamine-mediated)
Angiedema is a usually localised swelling of the deep dermis and subcutis due to increased vascular permeability. According to the mediator involved, …
AllergologyDRESS syndrome
DRESS syndrome (drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms), also called drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome (DIHS), is a severe, …
AllergologyDrug allergy
Drug allergy is an immune-mediated reaction to a drug. It differs from toxic and other adverse pharmacological effects and from drug–drug …
AllergologyFood allergy
Food allergy is an exaggerated immune response to dietary components, usually proteins. Manifestations range from atopic dermatitis to …
AllergologyInsect venom allergy
Insect venom allergy refers to allergic reactions to the venom of stinging insects of the order Hymenoptera. The venom causes a local toxic reaction …
AllergologyStevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis
Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN, Lyell syndrome) are severe, acute hypersensitivity reactions of the skin and …
AllergologySystemic mastocytosis
Mastocytosis is a group of disorders with clonal proliferation of mast cells and infiltration of the skin, other organs or both. Systemic …
AllergologyUrticaria (hives)
Urticaria (hives) is characterised by transient, migratory, well-circumscribed, itchy wheals. They are caused by edema of the upper dermis and appear …
InnereFuchs
Learn for your internal medicine board exam with flashcards, exam questions and image tasks (ECG, chest X-ray, ultrasound, lab values):
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